Rhetoric : Figures of Speech, Part-I

INTRODUCTION

   Rhetoric denotes the systematic study of ornamental language used in literature or persuasive public speaking. The term ‘rhetoric’ is derived from Greek ‘rhetor’, which means ‘a public speaker’. Hence, rhetoric may well be applied to the art of an orator or writer. The object of rhetoric is to teach the art of well-furnished composition able to touch the feeling of the audience or readers. While the prime function of grammar is to teach a person how to speak or write correctly, the aim of rhetoric is to teach one how to add beauty or grace to his or her style of composition. The principles of rhetoric are called ‘figures of speech’ which is to a certain extent a deviation from the plain and ordinary way of speaking. However, figures of speech are not rare or something exceptional; people use them often, consciously or unconsciously, in their day to day affairs. The rhetorical figures may be divided into the following classes, in order to make the comprehension easy—

   1. Figures Based on Similarity

   2. Figures Based on Association

   3. Figures Based on Contrast or, Difference

   4. Figures Based on Imagination

   5. Figures Bases on Indirectness

   6. Figures Based on Sound

   7. Figures Based on Construction

1. FIGURES BASED ON SIMILARITY

a. SIMILE: In a Simile two different things are compared and the point of comparison is clearly stated with such words like 'as', 'like', etc.

  Example: As red as rose is she.

    Here the lady and rose-two different things are compared and the point of comparison i.e. color (red) is clearly stated with the word 'as'.

  More Examples:

a)       I wondered lonely as a cloud.

b)       To follow knowledge like a sinking star.

c)       Like a child from the womb, like a ghost from the tomb,/ I arise and unbuild it again.

d)       Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.

b. METAPHOR: In a Metaphor two different things are compared but the point of comparison is not clearly stated.

  Example: She is a rose.

    Here the lady and rose-two different things are compared but the point of comparison i.e. color or beauty is concealed.

  More Examples:

a)       His crypt the cloudy canopy.

b)       The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.

c)       Lowliness is young ambition’s ladder.

d)       I will drink life to the lees.

e)       Golden opportunities are rare in life.

f)        There is not a ray of hope for his recovery.

2. FIGURES BASED ON ASSOCIATION

a. METONYMY: In Metonymy the name of one thing is substituted for another thing with which the original one is loosely connected.

    In this figure some variety is observed. They are as follows-

                I. Maker for his work and place for its production

  Examples: a) We read Shakespeare (the dramas of Shakespeare).

                                b) He was smoking a Havana (the cigar made in Havana).

                                c) All Arabia (perfumes of Arabia) breaths from the little box.

                                d) O for a beaker full of warm South (wine made in South Europe).

                II. Instrument or organ for the agent

                  Examples: a) The press (journalists) wields enormous power.

                                b) A smooth tongue (good speaker) wins favour.

                                c)This is another product of the same chisel (sculptor).

               

                III. Symbol for the thing symbolized

                  Examples: a) From cradle (birth) to the grave (death).

                                b) He ascended the throne (symbol of Sovereignty).

                                c) The effect of the red tape (official routine) often delays progress.

                IV. Container for the thing contained

                  Examples: a) The whole class (students of the class) laughed.

                                b) He drank the fatal cup (poison of the cup).

                                c) England (the people of England) hath need of thee.

                                d) Who steals my purse (money) steals trash.

                V. Act for its object

                  Examples: a) But half a plague and half a jest (the object of jest) still remained.

                                b) The young man’s vision (the object of vision).

                               

                VI. Name of a passion for the object inspiring it

                  Examples: a) Lata in the pride of India (Lata for whom the people of India feel pride).

                                b) A thing of beauty is joy (the matter of joy) for ever.

                                c) Lucidas, your sorrow (object of sorrow) is not dead.

                VII. Effect for cause or cause for effect

                  Examples: a) The bright death (sword) quivered at the victim’s throat.

                                b) Gray hair (old age) should be respected.

                                c) Yet sorrows (tears) fall.

                                d) The trees are white with May (flowers of May).

    The seven varieties of Metonymy can be memorized as—M I S C A P E (follow the underlined words above).

b. SYNECDOCHE: Synecdoche is figure of speech where a more comprehensive term is used in place of a less comprehensive term or a less comprehensive term is used in place of a more comprehensive term.

    In this figure some variety is observed. They are as follows-

                I. Species for the genus, or genus for the species

                  Examples: a) He has to earn his bread (‘bread’ is the species for the genus, ‘food’).

                                b) Silver and gold I have none (‘silver and gold’ are the species for the genus ‘riches’).

                                c) He is a poor creature (‘creature’ is the genus for the species, ‘man’).

                                d) Owen died in action (‘battle’ is the species for the genus ‘action’).

                II. Abstract for the concrete, or concrete for the abstract

                  Examples: a) Let not ambition (abstract ‘ambition’ for the concrete ‘ambitious man’) mock their useful toil.

                                b) Tyranny is dead! (abstract ‘tyranny’ for the concrete ‘tyrant’)

                                c) The father (concrete ‘father’ for the abstract ‘fatherly feelings’) in the judge forgives the boy.

                                d) Wisely kept the fool within (‘fool’ is the concrete for the abstract quality ‘folly’).

                III. Part of the whole, or whole for the part

                  Examples: a) A girl of sixteen springs (part ‘spring’ for the whole, ‘year’).

                                b) No useful coffin encloses his breast (‘breast’ is the part of the whole ‘body’).

                                c) The British world (whole ‘world’ for the part, ‘empire’) mourned his ultimate demise.

                                d) The Indians (whole ‘Indians’ for the part ‘Cricket team of India’) could not win the World Cup.

                IV. Individual for the class

                  Examples: A Daniel (individual ‘Daniel’ for the class, ‘wise judges’) came to judge.

                                Likewise, Judas stands for ‘traitors’, Gandhi for ‘nonviolence persons’, Homer for ‘great poets’, Caesar for ‘great heroes’, Cromwell for ‘great politicians’, Buvius for ‘bad poets’, Solomon for ‘wise persons’, Shylock for ‘knave usurers’, etc.

                V. Material for the thing made

                  Examples: a) She is dressed in silk (material ‘silk’ for the thing made out of it, ‘cloth’).

                                b) The convict is bound in irons (material ‘iron’ for the thing made out of it, ‘chain’).

                                c) The canvas (portrait painted on the canvas) looked lovelier than the real person.

    The five varieties of Synecdoche can be memorized as—S A P I M (follow the underlined words above).

c. TRANSFERRED EPITHET / HYPALLAGE: In a Transferred Epithet an adjective which properly belongs to one thing is transferred to another thing associated with it.

  Example: The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.

    Here the epithet or adjective ‘weary’ actually belongs to ‘the ploughman’, but it is transferred to ‘way’ associated with it.

  More Examples:

a)       The prisoner was transferred to the condemned cell.

b)       A sleepless pillow is pressed by both.

c)       He passed a busy life.

d. ALLUSION: In an allusion a word or expression is used to recall to one’s mind some memorable event, notable figure, legend, or writing or saying of the past.

  Example: It may be we shall…see the great Achilles.

    Here the reference is to the great Greek hero, Achilles, who took part in the Trojan War.

  More Examples:

a)       Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene. (Hippocrene, the legendary fountain of Greece whose water had red colour)

b)       …till one Greater Man / Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. (Greater Man refers to Jesus Christ)

c)       But it will pass away, burnt up in the fire of its own hot passions, and from its ashes will spring a new and younger world, full of fresh hope, with the light of morning in its eye. (the expression “burnt up…new and younger” refers to the mythical bird, Phoenix, which is supposed to burn itself to give birth to a new bird out of its own ashes)

d)       The hall where Charles had confronted the High Court of Justice with the placid courage that half redeemed his fame. (the allusion is to the trial of the English king, Charles II)