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Thursday, February 16, 2012

Impact of the Renaissance on English Literature

Renaissance (‘Rebirth’) is the name commonly applied to the period of European history following the Middle Ages. It is usually said to have begun in Italy in the late fourteenth century and to have continued, both in Italy and other countries of Western Europe through the fifteenth  and sixteenth centuries. It was that great transitional movement of Europe which swift away medieval thoughts, unprogressive economic system and internationalism, and in their place substituted skepticism, materialism, emancipation, self-expression a developed economic system and nationalism. In this period the European arts of painting, sculpture, architecture and literature reached an eminence not exceeded in any age. In the context of England, Renaissance signifies the complex and multi-faceted movement which transformed this country through a steady process of change, from being an insular state into one of the major powers of Europe during the late 16the and early seventeenth centuries. The rise of England in power and importance in the sphere of politics was matched by a corresponding growth of indigenous literature, rich enough to compete with the continental literature.
            Some Englishmen were attracted to visit Italy by the desire to see the classical masterpieces, saved and carried there by the refugees after the fall of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. Among these scholars were: William Grocyn, educationist; Thomas Linecre, physician and scholar; John Colet, Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral as well as theological lecturer and educational innovator; John Erasmus, student of Colet, whose writings were essential documents of the whole homo-centric Renaissance. Thomas More’s ‘Utopia’, though unfortunately in Latin, was charged with the spirit of the Renaissance humanism, and was a strong and positive reaction against the stiff inert conception of society of the Middle Ages. Spurred by the interaction of those English scholars and the invention of the printing press in 1477 by William Caxton, the vernacular literature gained a heightened status.
            English was a fertile ground enriched by a thick layer of translation. By 1579 many of the great classics, both modern and ancient had been translated into English, e.g., Plutarch’s ‘Lives’, Ovid’s ‘Metamorphosis’, Homer’s ‘Iliad’, Harington’s ‘Orlando Furioso’, etc. these innumerable exercises helped to make subtle the prose and verse of English writers as well as to enrich the minds of the people.
            Among outside influences that of Italy predominated, although those of France and Spain were considerable. Elizabethan literature which came to be the expression of the national genius had its birth in Italianism. The development of the English theatre owe much from those lively dramatic tales of Boccaccio, Cinthio, Bendello, etc. but at the end of the sixteenth century, the English character was, however, too definite merely to reflect a foreign country. Moreover, under Italian influence a reaction had set in against the country which was the seat of the Pope because to the majority the Protestantism which was soon to triumph was no more than freedom from foreign influence, and might be summed up as the rejection of Papal supremacy. And in which the Renaissance had flowered in England with a sensual ardor was reminiscent of paganism.
            In poetry the first two poets who took the pioneering task of rescuing English poetry from languor and artistic disarray were Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, the Earl of Surrey. Drank deeply into Italian poetry, they greatly polished the vernacular poetry, and were the first to introduce Italian lover poetry or sonnet into native poetry. The Renaissance national pride, ideal of adventure and active life finds expression in the words of Edmund Spenser, viz., ‘The Faerie Queene’ and ‘Shepherd’s Calendar’. The other Renaissance poet of distinction is Sir Philip Sidney, who was at the centre of a learned literary group that explored the resources of English and remained in touch with the finest minds of Europe and humanistic writing.
            While the new poets were self-conscious artists separated from the populace by their superior learning and culture, it was in the sphere of popular drama that the artists spoke directly to the man in the street. It was under the influence of the Renaissance that the moralists underwent a kind of gradual secularization and the regular English drama was produced fired with enthusiasm for everything belonging to the classical antiquity. The foundation of the first permanent theatre in 1576 followed by that of many more playhouses allowed Renaissance drama a touch of professionalism that aided in its fullest flowering.
            The ‘University Wits’, a group of talented, university educated, reckless young men started writing plays for the public as well as for the theatres. The group comprised Lyly, Kyd, Peele, Lodge, Marlowe, Nashe and Greene. Of them the most talented and the vigorous child of the renaissance was Christopher Marlowe. His dramas ‘Tamburlaine’, ‘Edward II’, ‘The Jew of Malta’ and ‘Doctor Faustus’ mark the culmination of that individualism which mark off Renaissance Europe from the anonymity of the Middle Ages.
            No discussion of the Renaissance English literature can be completed without a study of the works of William Shakespeare. Thirty-seven plays written over a period of some twenty-four years, a sonnet sequence and some longer poems constitute the Shakespearean canon. While he spun the romantic years in comedies like ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’, ‘As You Like It’, ‘Twelfth Night’; he blended history with imagination and philosophy in ‘Henry IV’, Richard III’; reflected on the intellectual dilemma of the Renaissance man in ‘Hamlet’, ‘Othello’, ‘King Lear’, ‘Macbeth’; and also dealt with patterns of loss and recovery, suffering and redemption in ‘The Tempest’, ‘The Winter’s Tale’.
            Renaissance English literature also witnessed the literary achievements of the poet, John Donne, the prose writings of Sir Francis Bacon, culminating and drawing a great finale in the works of John Milton, the strongest advocate of democracy and freedom. His completed manuscript of ‘Paradise Lost’ is the last great triumph of the Renaissance. 

Rhetoric : Figures of Speech, Part-III


6. FIGURES BASED ON SOUND

a. PUN / PARONOMASIA: In a Pun two words with similar sound are used or a single word with two different meanings is used.

  Example: All a cobbler lives is by his awl.
    Here two different words with similar sound-all and awl are used to convey different senses.

  More Examples:
a)       The person told the Sexton and he tolled the bell. (‘told’ means ‘said’; ‘tolled’ means ‘rang’)
b)       I am too light to bear this light. (the two ‘light’ mean ‘weak’ and ‘illumination’)
c)       The will of a living daughter is curbed by the will of a dead father. (the two ‘will’ refer ‘testament’ and ‘desire’ respectively)
d)       Me list no longer rotten bowes to climb. (‘bowes’ has two senses—‘bows’ and ‘boughs’)

b. ALLITERATION: In Alliteration same letters or syllables are repeated at the beginnings of successive or nearly successive words

  Example: How high His Highness holds his haughty head.
    Here the letter 'h' is repeated for several times in the beginning of nearly successive words.

  More Examples:
a)       The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, / The furrow followed free.
b)       In a summer season, when soft was the sun.
c)       Alone, alone, all, all, alone, / Alone on a wide, wide sea.

c. ONOMATOPOEIA: In Onomatopoeia the sound of a word is made to echo its sense.

  Example: The swallow is twittering.
    Here the word ‘twittering’ echoes the sense, i.e., the sound of a sparrow.

  More Examples:
a)       And murmuring of the innumerable bees.
b)       It cracked, and growled, and roared, and howled.
c)       And Niagara stuns with thundering sound.
d)       Only the stuttering rifles rapid rattle.


7. FIGURES BASED ON CONSTRUCTION

a. INTERROGATION / EROTESIS: In this figure something is denied or affirmed very strongly under the form of an interrogation in order to achieve impressiveness.

  Example: Who loves not freedom?
    Here the idea that ‘Everyone loves freedom’ has been strongly affirmed under the form of an interrogation.

  More Examples:
a)       Hath not a Jew eye?
b)       O cuckoo, shall I call thee bird, / Or but a wandering voice?
c)       To be, or not to be, that is the question;
Whether, ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune;
Or to take up arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them?

b. EXCLAMATION: Exclamation is the abrupt, inverted or elliptical expression of emotion, the language of wish or of contemplation which produces a sublime effect.
                It is generally introduced by interjections or such words as ‘how’, ‘what’, etc; there is a mark of exclamation in the end.

  Example: O, what a fall was there, my countryman!
    This is an expression of emotion, and it is introduce by the interjection ‘o’, and carries exclamatory mark.

  More Examples:
a)       What a piece of work is a man!
b)       Ah! woe is me! Winter is come and gone, / But grief returns with the revolving year.
c)       …but oh, how fall’n! how changed / From him!

c. CHIASMUS: This figure consists in the inversion of the order of words or phrases when they are repeated or subsequently referred to in a sentence.

  Example: Fair is foul, foul is fair.
    Here the order of words (fair is foul) has been inverted (foul is fair) when they are subsequently referred to in the sentence.

  More Examples:
a)       Beauty is truth, truth beauty.
b)       Can make a Heav’n of Hell, a Hell of Heav’n.
                                                                                                       
d. ZEUGMA: This figure consists in the use of one verb connecting two nouns for each of which a separate is necessary.

  Example: The moment and vessel past.
    Here the verb ‘past’ connects two nouns ‘moment’ and ‘vessel’ for each of which a separate is necessary.

  More Examples:
a)       The feast and noon grew high.
b)       Banners on high and battles passed below.

e. HENDIADYS: In a hendiadys two nouns are joined by the conjunction ‘and’, one of which gets the force of an adjective. In this figure a complex idea, which might have been expressed by a noun qualified by an adjective, is brought out.

  Example: Perfume and flowers fell in showers.
    Here ‘perfumes’ and ‘flowers’ are two nouns connected by ‘and’. The noun ‘perfume’ assumes the force of an adjective to express the complex idea, ‘perfumed flowers’.

  More Examples:
a)       The hall was full of melody and misses. (melodious misses)
b)       She is dressed in gold and ornaments. (golden ornaments)
c)       With joy and tiding fraught. (joyous tiding)

f. HYPERBATON / INVERSION: This figure consists in the inversion of the grammatical order of words in a sentence for the sake of emphasis.

  Example: Silver and gold I have none.
    Here the correct word order ‘I have none silver or gold’ has been inverted to create a strong impression in mind.

  More Examples:
a)       Out of suffering comes success.
b)       Much have I travell’d in the realms of gold.

g. LITOTES: In this figure a strong affirmative idea is expressed by the denial or negation of its opposite for the sake of emphasis.

   Example: The sight was not earthly.
     Here the idea ‘unearthly’ or ‘heavenly’ is expressed by the negation of its opposite ‘earthly’.

  More Examples:
a)       No maiden’s hand is round the throne. (Man’s)
b)       This is no joyous matter. (sorrowful) 

Rhetoric : Figures of Speech, Part-II


3. FIGURES BASED ON CONTRAST OR, DIFFERENCE

a. ANTITHESIS: In an Antithesis two contrasted words or ideas are placed side by side in a balanced form for the sake of emphasis.

  Example: United we stand, divided we fall.
    Here two contrasted idea ‘united we stand’ and ‘divided we fall’ are placed together for the sake of emphasis.

  More Examples:
a)       Tho’ much is taken, much abides.
b)       The old contemplate, the young act.
c)       It is a blessing, and not a curse.
d)       Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice.

b. EPIGRAM: In an Epigram there is an apparent contradiction which produces a momentary shock, but there is a deeper meaning underneath.

  Example: The child is the father of man.
    Here the apparent meaning is contradictory, for how a child can be the father of a man. But there is an inner meaning which suggests that the child of today will bring future generation.

  More Examples:
a)       No man teaches well, who wants to teach. (suggesting the failure of those who take pride on their knowledge)
b)       Beware the fury of a patient man. (seldom when a patent man becomes angry, he is dangerous)
c)       Most pleased, when most uneasy. (excessive pleasure has a sting of uneasiness)
d)       He makes no friend who has never made a foe. (unless one makes foe he is unable to identify his friend)
e)       Speech was given to man to conceal his thoughts. (by means of good oratory a man often covers his real thought)
f)        To be really free one must restraint his liberty. (there can be nothing called ‘absolute liberty’, a free man must restrain his liberty for the sake of society)

c. OXYMORON: In an Oxymoron two contradictory words are juxtaposed for a striking effect.

  Example: Life is bitter sweet.
    Here two contradictory words ‘bitter’ and ‘sweet’ are juxtaposed.

  More Examples:
a)       You must hasten slowly.
b)       Whose dread command is lawless law.
c)       And all its aching joys are no more.

d. CLIMAX: In a Climax a series of ideas are arranged in an ascending order for the sake of emphasis.

  Example: I came, I saw, I conquered.
    Here three ideas ‘I came’, ‘I saw’ and ‘I conquered’ are arranged in an ascending order.

  More Examples:
a)       A thief, a plunderer, an assassin.
b)       To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.
c)       Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.

e. ANTI-CLIMAX / BATHOS: In an Anti-climax there is a sudden fall from an important idea to a mean idea in order to excite laughter.

  Example: He lost his wife, his children and his dog at one full sweep.
    Here is a sudden fall from the important idea ‘children’ to the mean idea ‘dog’.

  More Examples:
a)       When husbands or when lap dogs breathe their last.
b)       Who, in the course of one revolving moon, / Was lawyer, statesman, fiddler, and buffoon.
c)       Puffs, powders, patches, Bibles, billet-doux.
d)       What female’s heart can gold despise? / What cat’s averse to fish?


4. FIGURES BASED ON IMAGINATION

a. PERSONIFICATION: In a Personification an inanimate object or an abstract idea is given the attributes of a living being.

  Example: Fortune is merry.
    Here the abstract idea ‘fortune’ is given the attributes of a living being in ‘merry’.

  More Examples:
a)       Proud be the rose, with rains and dews.
b)       And now the storm-blast came, and he / Was tyrannous and strong.
c)       Christian justice is strangely mute and seemingly blind.

b. APOSTROPHE: In an Apostrophe a short, impassioned address is made to nature, an inanimate object or an abstract idea, or a dead or absent person, imagining the same is listening.

  Example: O wind, /If winter comes can spring be far behind.
    Here the natural object ‘wind’ is addressed.

  More Examples:
a)       O Solitude! where are the charms / That sages have seen in thy face.
b)       The applause, delight, the wonder of our stage! / My Shakespeare rise!

c. HYPERBOLE / EXAGGERATION: In a Hyperbole an exaggerated statement is made in order to emphasize.

  Example: Ten thousand I saw at a glance.
    This is an exaggeration to say that the speaker saw ten thousand daffodils at a glance.

  More Examples:
a)       To see her is to love her, / And love her but for ever.
b)       All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten the little hand.
c)       I am tired of death.


5. FIGURES BASES ON INDIRECTNESS

a. IRONY: In an Irony the opposite of what is meant is said, and the purpose is to hurt someone.

  Example: A very fine friend you were to forsake me in my trouble.
    Here ‘fine’ is said but the opposite is meant, and the purpose is to hurt the friend.

  More Examples:                                                        
a)       That accomplished lawyer knows how to unbuild all subjects—even law.
b)       The brotherly love of our enlarging Christianity is provided by the multiplicity of murder.
c)       He came there with his usual punctuality one hour after the train had left.

b. INNUENDO: In an Innuendo a thing is hinted instead of plainly stated in order to damage one’s reputation.

  Example: My friend arrived and my book was missing.
    Here the insinuation is that the friend stole the book.

  More Examples:
a)       I do not lock all my doors because I have no servant. (suggesting that servants are generally thieves)
b)       I shall not anything of this painting, but the frame is splendid. (suggesting that the painting is bad)
c)       He has been treated by three doctors, but he is still alive. (suggesting that doctors hasten death)

c. PERIPHRASIS / CIRCUMLOCUTION: In periphrasis a thing or idea is presented in a round-about way instead of its being stated plainly.

  Example: Divided empire with Heaven’s King I hold.
    Here instead of ‘God’ the round-about expression ‘Heaven’s King’ has been used.
  More Examples:
a)       Moving isles of winter (ice-berg)
b)       The million-colored bow (rainbow)
c)       The weakening eye of day (sun)
d)       The orbed maiden with white fire laden (moon)
e)       Sleep, the sleep that knows no breaking (death)

d. EUPHEMISM: In a Euphemism a harsh or disagreeable statement is presented in an agreeable manner.

  Example: He breathed his last.
    Here the harsh statement ‘he died’ is presented in an agreeable manner.

  More Examples:
a)       The bank has stopped payment. (suggesting the bank’s bankruptcy)
b)       They dropped down one by one. (suggesting their death)
c)       Discord fell on the brain of the young man after that rude shock of life. (suggesting that he became mad)
d)       The knave came somewhat saucily into the world. (suggesting his illegitimate birth)

e. SARCASM: Sarcasm is a direct attack exposing the follies and weaknesses of a person or thing, but in a tone of mockery.

  Example: Jesus saved others but he could not save others.
    Here is a direct attack on Jesus indicating his inability to save himself.

  More Examples:
a)       God made him, and therefore let him pass for a man. (the man’s brutal nature is attacked here)

Rhetoric : Figures of Speech, Part-I


INTRODUCTION

   Rhetoric denotes the systematic study of ornamental language used in literature or persuasive public speaking. The term ‘rhetoric’ is derived from Greek ‘rhetor’, which means ‘a public speaker’. Hence, rhetoric may well be applied to the art of an orator or writer. The object of rhetoric is to teach the art of well-furnished composition able to touch the feeling of the audience or readers. While the prime function of grammar is to teach a person how to speak or write correctly, the aim of rhetoric is to teach one how to add beauty or grace to his or her style of composition. The principles of rhetoric are called ‘figures of speech’ which is to a certain extent a deviation from the plain and ordinary way of speaking. However, figures of speech are not rare or something exceptional; people use them often, consciously or unconsciously, in their day to day affairs. The rhetorical figures may be divided into the following classes, in order to make the comprehension easy—
   1. Figures Based on Similarity
   2. Figures Based on Association
   3. Figures Based on Contrast or, Difference
   4. Figures Based on Imagination
   5. Figures Bases on Indirectness
   6. Figures Based on Sound
   7. Figures Based on Construction


1. FIGURES BASED ON SIMILARITY

a. SIMILE: In a Simile two different things are compared and the point of comparison is clearly stated with such words like 'as', 'like', etc.

  Example: As red as rose is she.
    Here the lady and rose-two different things are compared and the point of comparison i.e. color (red) is clearly stated with the word 'as'.

  More Examples:
a)       I wondered lonely as a cloud.
b)       To follow knowledge like a sinking star.
c)       Like a child from the womb, like a ghost from the tomb,/ I arise and unbuild it again.
d)       Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.

b. METAPHOR: In a Metaphor two different things are compared but the point of comparison is not clearly stated.

  Example: She is a rose.
    Here the lady and rose-two different things are compared but the point of comparison i.e. color or beauty is concealed.

  More Examples:
a)       His crypt the cloudy canopy.
b)       The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.
c)       Lowliness is young ambition’s ladder.
d)       I will drink life to the lees.
e)       Golden opportunities are rare in life.
f)        There is not a ray of hope for his recovery.


2. FIGURES BASED ON ASSOCIATION

a. METONYMY: In Metonymy the name of one thing is substituted for another thing with which the original one is loosely connected.

    In this figure some variety is observed. They are as follows-

                I. Maker for his work and place for its production

  Examples: a) We read Shakespeare (the dramas of Shakespeare).
                                b) He was smoking a Havana (the cigar made in Havana).
                                c) All Arabia (perfumes of Arabia) breaths from the little box.
                                d) O for a beaker full of warm South (wine made in South Europe).

                II. Instrument or organ for the agent

                  Examples: a) The press (journalists) wields enormous power.
                                b) A smooth tongue (good speaker) wins favour.
                                c)This is another product of the same chisel (sculptor).
               
                III. Symbol for the thing symbolized

                  Examples: a) From cradle (birth) to the grave (death).
                                b) He ascended the throne (symbol of Sovereignty).
                                c) The effect of the red tape (official routine) often delays progress.

                IV. Container for the thing contained

                  Examples: a) The whole class (students of the class) laughed.
                                b) He drank the fatal cup (poison of the cup).
                                c) England (the people of England) hath need of thee.
                                d) Who steals my purse (money) steals trash.

                V. Act for its object

                  Examples: a) But half a plague and half a jest (the object of jest) still remained.
                                b) The young man’s vision (the object of vision).
                               
                VI. Name of a passion for the object inspiring it

                  Examples: a) Lata in the pride of India (Lata for whom the people of India feel pride).
                                b) A thing of beauty is joy (the matter of joy) for ever.
                                c) Lucidas, your sorrow (object of sorrow) is not dead.

                VII. Effect for cause or cause for effect

                  Examples: a) The bright death (sword) quivered at the victim’s throat.
                                b) Gray hair (old age) should be respected.
                                c) Yet sorrows (tears) fall.
                                d) The trees are white with May (flowers of May).

    The seven varieties of Metonymy can be memorized as—M I S C A P E (follow the underlined words above).

b. SYNECDOCHE: Synecdoche is figure of speech where a more comprehensive term is used in place of a less comprehensive term or a less comprehensive term is used in place of a more comprehensive term.

    In this figure some variety is observed. They are as follows-

                I. Species for the genus, or genus for the species

                  Examples: a) He has to earn his bread (‘bread’ is the species for the genus, ‘food’).
                                b) Silver and gold I have none (‘silver and gold’ are the species for the genus ‘riches’).
                                c) He is a poor creature (‘creature’ is the genus for the species, ‘man’).
                                d) Owen died in action (‘battle’ is the species for the genus ‘action’).

                II. Abstract for the concrete, or concrete for the abstract

                  Examples: a) Let not ambition (abstract ‘ambition’ for the concrete ‘ambitious man’) mock their useful toil.
                                b) Tyranny is dead! (abstract ‘tyranny’ for the concrete ‘tyrant’)
                                c) The father (concrete ‘father’ for the abstract ‘fatherly feelings’) in the judge forgives the boy.
                                d) Wisely kept the fool within (‘fool’ is the concrete for the abstract quality ‘folly’).

                III. Part of the whole, or whole for the part

                  Examples: a) A girl of sixteen springs (part ‘spring’ for the whole, ‘year’).
                                b) No useful coffin encloses his breast (‘breast’ is the part of the whole ‘body’).
                                c) The British world (whole ‘world’ for the part, ‘empire’) mourned his ultimate demise.
                                d) The Indians (whole ‘Indians’ for the part ‘Cricket team of India’) could not win the World Cup.

                IV. Individual for the class

                  Examples: A Daniel (individual ‘Daniel’ for the class, ‘wise judges’) came to judge.
                                Likewise, Judas stands for ‘traitors’, Gandhi for ‘nonviolence persons’, Homer for ‘great poets’, Caesar for ‘great heroes’, Cromwell for ‘great politicians’, Buvius for ‘bad poets’, Solomon for ‘wise persons’, Shylock for ‘knave usurers’, etc.

                V. Material for the thing made

                  Examples: a) She is dressed in silk (material ‘silk’ for the thing made out of it, ‘cloth’).
                                b) The convict is bound in irons (material ‘iron’ for the thing made out of it, ‘chain’).
                                c) The canvas (portrait painted on the canvas) looked lovelier than the real person.

    The five varieties of Synecdoche can be memorized as—S A P I M (follow the underlined words above).

c. TRANSFERRED EPITHET / HYPALLAGE: In a Transferred Epithet an adjective which properly belongs to one thing is transferred to another thing associated with it.

  Example: The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.
    Here the epithet or adjective ‘weary’ actually belongs to ‘the ploughman’, but it is transferred to ‘way’ associated with it.

  More Examples:
a)       The prisoner was transferred to the condemned cell.
b)       A sleepless pillow is pressed by both.
c)       He passed a busy life.

d. ALLUSION: In an allusion a word or expression is used to recall to one’s mind some memorable event, notable figure, legend, or writing or saying of the past.

  Example: It may be we shall…see the great Achilles.
    Here the reference is to the great Greek hero, Achilles, who took part in the Trojan War.

  More Examples:
a)       Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene. (Hippocrene, the legendary fountain of Greece whose water had red colour)
b)       …till one Greater Man / Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. (Greater Man refers to Jesus Christ)
c)       But it will pass away, burnt up in the fire of its own hot passions, and from its ashes will spring a new and younger world, full of fresh hope, with the light of morning in its eye. (the expression “burnt up…new and younger” refers to the mythical bird, Phoenix, which is supposed to burn itself to give birth to a new bird out of its own ashes)
d)       The hall where Charles had confronted the High Court of Justice with the placid courage that half redeemed his fame. (the allusion is to the trial of the English king, Charles II)